Linguistic terminology terms | LETTER - I
What is identity of illocutionary forces?
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Definition
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Identity of illocutionary forces is a relationship between two
illocutionary forces
such that when they are employed with the same
propositional
content, they have the same conditions for
nondefective
performance. The two forces thus serve the same purpose and have the same components of illocutionary force.
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Definition
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An ideophone is a member of a set of words that
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are phonologically distinguishable from other words in a language
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are often onomatopoeic, and
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form one or more syntactic classes or subclasses, most typically
adverbial
.
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Examples (Hausa)
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Generic
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An ideophone is a kind of
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Definition
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An idiom is a multiword
construction
that
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is a semantic unit whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its
constituents
, and
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has a non-productive
syntactic
structure.
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Features
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An idiom is a multiword expression. Individual components of an idiom can often be inflected in the same way individual words in a phrase can be
inflected
. This inflection usually follows the same pattern of inflection as the idiom's literal counterpart.
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Example:
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have a bee in one's bonnet
He has bees in his bonnet.
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An idiom behaves as a single semantic unit.
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It tends to have some measure of internal cohesion such that it can often be replaced by a literal counterpart that is made up of a single word.
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Example:
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kick the bucket
die
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It resists interruption by other words whether they are semantically compatible or not.
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Example:
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pull one's leg
*pull hard on one's leg
*pull on one's left leg
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It resists reordering of its component parts.
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Example:
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let the cat out of the bag
*the cat got left out of the bag
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An idiom has a non-productive syntactic structure. Only single particular lexemes can collocate in an idiomatic construction. Substituting other words from the same
generic lexical relation set
will destroy the idiomatic meaning of the expression.
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Example:
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eat one's words
*eat one's sentences
?swallow one's words
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Discussion
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An idiom often shows the following characteristics:
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It is syntactically anomalous. It has an unusual grammatical structure .
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It contains unique, fossilized items.
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Examples:
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to and fro
fro < from = away (Scottish)
cobweb
cob < cop = spider (Middle English)
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Some linguists contend that compound words may qualify as idioms (e.g.
cobweb
Wood 1986
; 93), while others maintan that an idiom must be more lexically complex
Cruse 1986
.
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Nonexamples
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Idioms contrast with the following:
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Metaphors
satisfy the first requirement for an idiom, that their meaning be obscure, but not the second, that they not be productive.
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Examples:
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throw in the towel
throw in the sponge
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Collocates
may have restricted lexical possibilities or use archaic vocabulary such that they are not productive, but their meaning is not opaque.
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Examples:
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heavy drinking
mete out
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Definition
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Illative case is a case that expresses motion into or direction toward the
referent
of the
noun
it marks.
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Discussion
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The term
illative case
is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
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Example (Finnish)
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Generic
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Illative case is a kind of
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What is an illocutionary act?
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Definition
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An illocutionary act is a complete speech act, made in a typical
utterance
, that consists of
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the delivery of the propositional content of the utterance (including
references
and a
predicate
), and
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a particular
illocutionary force
, whereby the speaker
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asserts
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suggests
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demands
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promises, or
-
vows.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of illocutionary acts:
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Generic
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An illocutionary act is a kind of
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What is an illocutionary conditional?
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Definition
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An illocutionary conditional is a complex illocutionary act that consists of
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Example (English)
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The illocutionary act of betting is performed only if the condition, that Carter is the next Democratic candidate, is true.
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Generic
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An illocutionary conditional is a kind of
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What is an illocutionary connective?
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Example (English)
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The word
but
joins two illocutionary acts: the assertion that the speaker will go to someone’s house and the question whether the person concerned will be there.
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What is illocutionary consistency?
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Definition
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Illocutionary consistency is a property of a set of
illocutionary acts
such that it is possible, in at least one context of
utterance
, for the
speaker
to be committed to all the acts simultaneously.
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What is an illocutionary denegation?
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Definition
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An illocutionary denegation is an illocutionary act that is made complex by the negation of its
illocutionary force
. It expresses that the
speaker
is not performing a particular illocutionary act.
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Example (English)
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This illocutionary act contrasts with
I promise not to come,
in which the speaker does perform an illocutionary act.
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Generic
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An illocutionary denegation is a kind of
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What is illocutionary force?
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Definition
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Illocutionary force is the combination of the
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Examples (English)
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Illocutionary force distinguishes the following types of acts:
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Asserting
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Promising
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Excommunicating
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Exclaiming in pain
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Inquiring
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Ordering
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What is an illocutionary force indicating device?
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Definition
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An illocutionary force indicating device is any linguistic element that indicates or delimits the
illocutionary force
of an
utterance
.
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Kind
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Here is a kind of illocutionary force indicating device:
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What is illocutionary inconsistency?
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Definition
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Illocutionary inconsistency is a property of a set of
illocutionary acts
such that it is not possible, in any context of utterance, for the speaker to be committed to all the acts simultaneously.
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What is an illocutionary point?
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Discussion
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According to certain analyses, there are five kinds of illocutionary points:
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To assert something
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To commit to doing something
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To attempt to get someone to do something
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To bring about a state of affairs by the utterance
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To express an attitude or emotion
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of illocutionary points:
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What is an illocutionary verb?
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Definition
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An illocutionary verb is a
verb
that, as part of its meaning, expresses
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What is an illustrative sentence?
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Introduction
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An illustrative sentence will help you
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clarify the meaning of a
lexeme
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use a word in the correct grammatical context, and
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gain insight into the culture and literary style of the language.
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Definition
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An illustrative sentence is an example that clarifies the usage of a particular
sense
of a lexeme.
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Discussion
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A good illustrative sentence meets the following criteria:
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Definition
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An image schema is a mental pattern that
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recurrently provides structured understanding of various experiences, and
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is available for use in
metaphor
as a source domain to provide an understanding of yet other experiences.
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Examples (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of image schemas:
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Generic
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An image schema is a kind of
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Definition
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Immediacy is a distinction in
place deixis
that indicates location at a distance intermediate between locations considered
proximal
and
distal
.
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Generic
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Immediacy is a kind of
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Definition
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An immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.
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Examples (English)
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Generic
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An immediate constituent is a kind of
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Definition
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Immediate imperative mood is an imperative mood that signals that the command or request is to be carried out right away.
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Generic
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Immediate imperative mood is a kind of
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Definition
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Immediate past tense is past tense that refers to a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of
utterance
.
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Generic
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Immediate past tense is a kind of
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Definition
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Imperative mood is mood that signals
directive modality
, especially in
commands
. Its use may be extended to signal permission.
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Example (English)
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Here is an example of a construction indicating imperative mood:
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Kind
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Here is a kind of imperative mood:
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Generic
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Imperative mood is a kind of
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What is imperfective aspect?
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Definition
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Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole.
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Examples (English)
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Progressive aspect
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Habitual aspect with
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Generic
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Imperfective aspect is a kind of
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Definition
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Impermissible mixed metaphors are metaphors that conflict because they serve different purposes.
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Examples (English)
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Generic
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Impermissible mixed metaphors are a kind of
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What is an impersonal verb?
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Definition
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An impersonal verb is a verb that
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Generic
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An impersonal verb is a kind of
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What is an implicational scale?
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Definition
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An implicational scale is a set of lexical items that are
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of the same
constituent
category, and
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ordered in terms of their informativeness.
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Any sentence including one item of the set entails all of the
propositions
expressed by similar sentences containing less informative items. In addition, in keeping with the
quantity maxim
, the use of an item in the scale creates
scalar implicatures
that disallow the propositions expressed by similar sentences that contain more informative items.
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Examples (English)
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{all, most, many, some}
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{always, often, sometimes}
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{succeed in, try to, want to}
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{certain, probable, possible}
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Definition
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An implicature is anything that is inferred from an
utterance
but that is not a condition for the truth of the utterance.
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Example (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of implicatures:
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Generic
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An implicature is a kind of
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What is imprecative mood?
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Definition
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Imprecative mood is a volitive mood that signals the speaker's wish that an unfavorable
proposition
will come about.
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Example (Turkish)
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Generic
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Imprecative mood is a kind of
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What is an inalienable noun?
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Definition
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An inalienable noun is a noun that
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refers to something viewed as permanently and necessarily possessed, and
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is thus obligatorily expressed as possessed.
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It may require a distinguishing possessive form.
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Example (Awa, Papua New Guinea)
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Generic
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An inalienable noun is a kind of
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What is an inanimate class?
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Definition
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An inanimate class is a category of
nouns
that do not have human or animal
referents
.
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Discussion
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In some languages, the inanimate class is a grammaticalized noun class.
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Generic
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An inanimate class is a kind of
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What is inchoative aspect?
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Definition
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Inchoative aspect is an aspect that expresses the beginning of an event or state.
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Generic
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Inchoative aspect is a kind of
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What is an inclusive alternative relation?
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Definition
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An inclusive alternative relation is an alternative relation in which more than one of the
propositions
may be true or fulfilled.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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An inclusive alternative relation is a kind of
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What is inclusive first person deixis?
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Definition
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Inclusive first person deixis is
deixis
that refers to a group including the
addressee(s)
.
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Generic
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Inclusive first person deixis is a kind of
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What is an indefinite concessive relation?
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Definition
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An indefinite concessive relation is a concession relation in which the
clause
that expresses the concession contains a form, such as the following, that expresses a range:
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Examples (English)
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No matter what he said, she still refused to go out with him.
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Whoever he is, I’m not opening that door.
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Generic
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An indefinite concessive relation is a kind of
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What is an indefinite pronoun?
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Definition
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An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that belongs to a class whose members indicate
indefinite
reference.
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Definition
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Indefiniteness is a kind of definiteness indicating that the
referent(s)
of an expression are not presumed to be identifiable.
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The referent is not identifiable because of a lack of shared knowledge or situation, including no previous mention of the referent.
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Discussion
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Certain demonstratives and pronouns often are used to indicate indefiniteness.
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Examples (English)
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Here are some examples of words that indicate indefiniteness:
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Generic
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Indefinite is a kind of
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What is indirect illocution?
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Definition
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Indirect illocution is an illocutionary act in which the
speaker
expresses another
illocutionary force
other than that literally expressed in the
utterance,
by relying on ,
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shared background knowledge
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principles of conversation, such as the
cooperative principle
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convention, and
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the ability of the
addressee
to make inferences.
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Generic
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An indirect illocution is a kind of
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What is an indirect object?
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Definition
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An indirect object is a
grammatical relation
that is one means of expressing the semantic role of
goal
and other similar roles.
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It is proposed for languages in which the role is distinct from the
direct object
and the
oblique object
on the basis of multiple independent syntactic or morphological criteria, such as the following:
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Having a particular case marking, commonly
dative
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Governing an agreement affix on the verb, such as person or number
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Being distinct from oblique relations in that it may be
relativized
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Generic
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An indirect object is a kind of
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Definition
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Indirect speech is reported speech that is presented with grammatical modifications, rather than as it might have been uttered by the original
speaker
.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Indirect speech is a kind of
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What is an individual-group lexical relation?
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Definition
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An individual-group
lexical relation
is an association between two
lexical units
in which one lexical unit is a collective term of the other.
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Examples (English)
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Underlying structure
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The underlying structure of a individual-group lexical relation set is a
set of pairs
.
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Frames
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Here are some frames for testing and eliciting an individual-group lexical relation:
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A group of Xs is called a Y.
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A Y is a collection of Xs.
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Definition
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Inessive case is a case that expresses a location within the
referent
of the noun it marks.
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Discussion
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The term
inessive case
is used especially in Finnish grammatical studies.
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Example (Finnish)
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Generic
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Inessive case is a kind of
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What is an inferable entity?
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Definition
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An inferable entity is a
referent
that may be inferred by the
addressee
from other information that has already been given.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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An inferable entity is a kind of
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Definition
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Inferior status is
social deixis
that encodes a low degree of status.
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Examples (French, German)
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Generic
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Inferior is a kind of
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What is an infield distinction?
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Definition
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An infield distinction is a distinction in
place deixis
that indicates that a location is in visual range.
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Generic
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Infield distinction is a kind of
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Definition
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An infinitive is the base form of a verb. It is unmarked for
inflectional
categories such as the following:
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Discussion
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In English, the infinitive form may be used alone or in conjunction with the particle
to.
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Generic
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An infinitive is a kind of
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Definition
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An infix is an affix that is inserted within a
root
. or
stem.
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Example: Philippines (Tagalog)
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The focus marker
-um-
is a infix which is added after the first consonant of the root.
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Example (Chickasaw)
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In verb roots, a glottal stop is inserted to form a negative.
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Example (English)
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bloomin
of
abso-bloomin-lutely
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Generic
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An infix is a kind of
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Example: Philippines (Tagalog)
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The focus marker
-um-
is a infix which is added after the first consonant of the root.
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Generic
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Infixation is a kind of:
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Definition
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Inflection is variation in the form of a word, typically by means of an
affix
, that expresses a grammatical contrast which is obligatory for the
stem’s
word class in some given grammatical context.
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Discussion
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In contrast to
derivation
, inflection
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does not result in a change of word class, and
-
usually produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning.
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Characteristics of inflectional operations
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Inflectional operations
ground
the semantic content of a root according to place, time, and participant reference, without substantially affecting the basic semantic content of the root. They often specify when an event or situation took place, who or what were the participants, and sometimes where, how or whether an event or situation really took place. In other words, roots can be inflected for such things as:
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Inflectional operations
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Example (English)
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In the following English sentence,
come
is inflected for
person
and
number
by the suffix
-s:
The mailman
comes
about noon.
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Example (Spanish)
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In the following Spanish noun phrase,
las
and
rojas
are inflected for agreement with
manzanas
in
grammatical gender
by
-a
and in number by
-s:
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Generic
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Inflection is a kind of
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What is an inflectional affix?
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Definition
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An inflectional affix is an affix that
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expresses a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its
stem
's word class in some given grammatical context
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does not change the word class of its stem
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is typically located farther from its
root
than a
derivational affix,
and
-
produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning.
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Examples (English)
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Here are some examples of
grammatical categories
that are expressed by inflectional affixes:
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Generic
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An inflectional affix is a kind of
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What is an inflectional category?
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Definition
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An inflectional category is a class of
affixes
that share a common grammatical feature.
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Also known as:
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grammatical category
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Examples
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Case
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Number
-
Gender
-
Tense
-
Aspect
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Nonexamples
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The term “inflectional category” needs to be distinguished from these closely related terms:
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-
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Definition
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Informal language is language use characterized by
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spontaneous speech in situations that may be described as natural or "real-life," and
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the use of a "low” dialect or language in preference to a “high” one.
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Examples (English)
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Here are some examples of language domains where informal language takes place:
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Instructions to subordinates
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Conversation with family and friends
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Portrayal of "real" life in a soap opera
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Generic
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Informal language is a kind of
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Example (English)
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Generic
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An informativeness principle is a kind of
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What is an initiative time latency?
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Definition
|
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An initiative time latency is the time between the end of a participant's
turn
and the resumption of his or her speakership in the absence of a response from any other participant.
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What is an insertion sequence?
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Definition
|
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An insertion sequence is a sequence of
turns
that intervenes between the first and second parts of an
adjacency pair
.
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Examples (English)
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Generic
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An insertion sequence is a kind of
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What is instrument as a semantic role?
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Definition
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Instrument is the
semantic role
of an inanimate thing that an
agent
uses to implement an event. It is the stimulus or immediate physical cause of an event.
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Discussion
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Instrument words are usually nouns occurring in the
noun phrase
of a clause:
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In some languages, the noun occurs in a second clause or
serial verb construction
:
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Examples (English)
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The cook cut the cake with
a knife.
-
She used
a crayon
to scribble a note.
-
That window was broken by
a hammer.
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Generic
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Instrument is a kind of
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What is instrumental case?
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Definition
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Instrumental case is a case indicating that the
referent
of the
noun
it marks is the means of the accomplishment of the action expressed by the
clause
.
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Generic
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Instrumental case is a kind of
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What is an intended perlocutionary effect?
|
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Discussion
|
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Some analysts consider an intended perlocutionary effect to be part of the definition of a type of illocutionary act.
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Examples
|
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To inform the addressee
-
To get the addressee to do something
-
To get the addressee to have a particular expectation
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Definition
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An intensifier heightens or lowers the intensity of meaning of an item.
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Examples (English)
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In traditional English grammar, intensifiers are considered adverbs.
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Here are some examples of intensifiers:
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very
good
-
hardly
to the point
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Definition
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An interjection is a form, typically brief, such as one syllable or word, which is used most often as an exclamation or part of an exclamation.
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An interjection
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typically expresses an emotional reaction, often with respect to an accompanying sentence
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is not syntactically related to other accompanying expressions, and
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may include a combination of sounds not otherwise found in the language.
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Examples (English)
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psst
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ugh
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excellent
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well, well
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Generic
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An interjection is a kind of
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What is an internal relation?
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Definition
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An internal relation is an interpropositional relation that relates the situations described in the
propositions
by their communicative usage as opposed to relating the situations described by the propositions.
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Examples (English)
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This example contrasts with the following sentence, which is an example of an external relation sequence:
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Generic
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An internal relation is a kind of
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What is an internal relative clause?
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Definition
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An internal relative clause is a relative clause whose
head
noun phrase
occurs within the relative clause itself.
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Also known as:
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Internal-headed relative clause
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Discussion
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This type of relative clause, which occurs only in SOV languages, takes the place of a regular noun phrase argument in the main clause.
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The meaning of an internal relative clause may be ambiguous in languages that do not grammatically indicate which of the noun phrases within the relative clause is the head noun phrase.
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Examples (Imbabura Quechua)
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[kan
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kwitsa
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-man
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kwintu
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-ta
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willa
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-shka
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-ka]
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llapa
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you
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girl
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to
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story
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ACCUSATIVE
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tell
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NOMINALIZER
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TOPIC
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very
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sumaj -mi
pretty VALIDATOR
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This example means either ‘The girl to whom you told the story is very pretty’ or ‘The story that you told to the girl is very pretty’.
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Generic
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An internal relative clause is a kind of
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What is an interpretation relation?
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Definition
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An interpretation relation is an interpropositional relation in which some
proposition(s)
relate the content of some other proposition(s) to a different framework of ideas, a framework other than the speaker's value judgments.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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An interpretation relation is a kind of
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What is an interpropositional relation?
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Definition
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An interpropositional relation is an explicit or inferred coherence relation between
propositions
or groups of propositions that are typically expressed by clauses or larger portions of text.
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Interpropositional relations can account for the coherence between portions of text.
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Discussion
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The term
interpropositional relation
has been chosen here as a rubric for relations that various authors have proposed, using a variety of terminology, in accounting for text structure or coherence.
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Not every author would agree that this term is the best one for these relations, nor would all agree that every relation cited here belongs in a list of interpropositional relations. The controversy occurs either because of a disputation over the validity of a relation itself, or some restriction on the usage of the term
interpropositional relation.
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Example (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of interpropositional relations as found in Mann and Thompson 1985.:
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Here are some kinds of propositional relations as found, for example, in
Banker 1996
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Equal prominence
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Chronological
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Nonchronological
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Unequal prominence
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Orientation
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orienter-CONTENT
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circumstance-NUCLEUS
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Chronological
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move(n)-GOAL
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occasion-OUTCOME
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problem-RESOLUTION
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Nonchronological
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restatement
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NUCLEUS-equivalent
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GENERIC-specific(n)
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generic-SPECIFIC
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contraction-amplification
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negative-POSITIVE
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Generic
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An interpropositional relation is a kind of
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What is interrogative mood?
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Definition
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An interrogative mood is an
epistemic mood
that signals that the speaker wishes to elicit information concerning the content of his or her
utterance
from the
addressee
.
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Generic
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An interrogative mood is a kind of
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Definition
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An interrogative pro-form is a pro-form that is used in
questions
to stand for the item questioned.
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Generic
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An interrogative pro-form is a kind of
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What is intimate social deixis?
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Definition
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Intimate social deixis is
deixis
that expresses a very high degree of solidarity between the
speaker
and the
addressee
.
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Generic
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Intimate social deixis a kind of
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Definition
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Intonation is the system of levels (rising and falling) and variations in pitch sequences within speech.
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Examples (English): Intransitive verbs
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Generic
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Intransitivity is a kind of
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Definition
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Irony is a trope in which an expression is used in such a fashion as to convey the opposite meaning of what is expressed.
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Example (English)
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Kind
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Here is a kind of irony:
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Generic
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Irony is a kind of
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What is irrealis modality?
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Definition
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Irrealis modality is a modality that connotes that the
proposition
with which it is associated is nonactual or nonfactual.
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Kind
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Here is a kind of irrealis modality:
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Generic
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Irrealis modality is a kind of
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What is an irregular verb?
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Definition
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An irregular verb is a verb which does not conform to an expected
inflectional
pattern.
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Discussion
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The adjective
irregular
can be applied to members of other word classes besides
verbs.
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Generic
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An irregular verb is a kind of
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What is an isolating language?
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Definition
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An isolating language is a language in which almost every word consists of a single morpheme.
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Also known as:
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Analytic language
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Discussion
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Isolating languages are especially common in Southeast Asia.
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Example (Vietnamese)
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khi tôi dên nhà ban tôi, chúng tôi bát dâu làm bài.
when I come house friend I Plural I begin do lesson
When I came to my friend's house, we began to do lessons.
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Contrast
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The opposite of a highly isolating language is a highly
polysynthetic
language.
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What is iterative aspect?
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Definition
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Iterative aspect is an aspect that expresses the repetition of an event or state.
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Example (Hungarian)
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The Hungarian suffix
-gel
expresses iterative aspect (diacritical markings are not reproduced here):
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Kind
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Here is a kind of iterative aspect:
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Generic
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Iterative aspect is a kind of
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