Linguistic terminology terms | LETTER - D
What is dative as a semantic role?
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Definition
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Dative is the
semantic role
of a referent that is conscious of being affected by the state or action identified by the
verb
.
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Generic
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Dative is a kind of
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Definition
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Dative case is a case that marks any of the following:
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Indirect objects
(for languages in which they are held to exist)
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Nouns
having the role of
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recipient (as of things given)
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beneficiary of an action, or
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possessor of an item
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Example (German)
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Generic
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Dative case is a kind of
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What is a declarative illocutionary point?
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Definition
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A declarative illocutionary point is an illocutionary point in which, by making an
utterance
, a speaker brings into existence the state of affairs described in the
propositional
content of the utterance.
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Discussion
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According to certain analyses, a declarative illocutionary point is one of the five basic purposes that a speaker can have in making an utterance.
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Examples (English)
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Pronouncing a couple married
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Declaring war
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Generic
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A declarative illocutionary point is a kind of
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What is declarative mood?
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Discussion
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The term
indicative
is used in a narrow sense as a synonym of
declarative.
In its broad usage,
indicative
is approximately equivalent in meaning to
realis
.
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Generic
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Declarative mood is a kind of
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Deductive mood is a kind of
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What is a defective illocutionary act?
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Definition
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A defective illocutionary act is an illocutionary act, whether successful or unsuccessful, in which one or more of the
preparatory
or
sincerity conditions
for the act are not met.
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Examples (English)
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The
utterance
Pass the salt
in a situation in which a preparatory condition, the
addressee’s
ability to comply, is not met because there is no salt on the table
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A lie or insincere promise, in which the act itself is defective even if the statement or promise is successfully made
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Generic
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A defective illocutionary act is a kind of
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What is a defective verb?
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Definition
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A defective verb is a verb which does not exhibit all the forms typical of a regular verbal conjugation.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A defective verb is a kind of
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What is a definite concessive relation?
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Definition
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A definite concessive relation is a concession relation in which the clause expressing the concession is marked by a concessive subordinator that expresses the meaning “in spite of the fact that.”
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Generic
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A definite concessive relation is a kind of
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What is definite identifiability?
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Definition
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Definite identifiability is a kind of definiteness which indicates that an expression’s
referent(s)
is in some way identifiable to both
speaker
and
addressee
.
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The referent is identifiable because of a shared knowledge or situation, including a previous mention of the referent.
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Generic
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Definite is a kind of
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Definition
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Definiteness is a category concerned with the grammaticalization of identifiability and nonidentifiability of
referents
on the part of a
speaker
or
addressee
.
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Discussion
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Definiteness is frequently expressed by
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of definiteness:
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Generic
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Definiteness is a kind of
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Definition
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A definition is a thorough description of the meaning of a
lexical unit
.
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Parts
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Here are the parts of a definition:
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Examples (Hebrew-English): Bilingual definition
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Examples: (English: monolingual definition)
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Nonexamples
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A
gloss
is not the same as a definition.
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Here is a table that compares a gloss with a definition:
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Point of comparison
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Gloss
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Definition
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Length
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Consists of one or two words
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Consists of one or more phrases, sentences, or paragraphs
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Specificity
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Is a summary of the meaning of the sense, suitable for use with text glossing
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Is a full, expanded description of the meaning of the sense
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What is a deictic center?
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Definition
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A deictic center is a reference point in relation to which a
deictic expression
is to be interpreted.
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Discussion
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The deictic center is most typically the present time, location,
participant role
, and so forth of the
speaker
.
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Examples (English)
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What is a deictic expression?
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Definition
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A deictic expression is an expression that has a
deictic
usage as its basic usage, though it may also have nondeictic usages.
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Definition
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Deixis is reference by means of an expression whose interpretation is relative to the (usually) extralinguistic context of the
utterance
, such as
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who is speaking
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the time or place of speaking
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the gestures of the
speaker
, or
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the current location in the
discourse
.
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Examples (English)
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Here are examples of deictic expressions:
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I
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You
-
Now
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There
-
That
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The following
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Tenses
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of deixis:
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Generic
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Deixis is a kind of
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Definition
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Delative case is a case which expresses motion downward from the
referent
of the
noun
it marks.
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Generic
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Delative case is a kind of
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Examples (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of delays:
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What is deliberative mood?
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Definition
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Deliberative mood is a directive mood which signals the speaker's request for instruction from the addressee as to whether to do the proposition expressed in the utterance.
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Example (English)
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Example (Afar)
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The
-oo
suffix signals deliberative mood, as in
aboo
‘Shall I do (it)?’
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Generic
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Deliberative mood is a kind of
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Definition
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A demonstrative is a determiner that is used
deictically
to indicate a
referent
's spatial, temporal, or discourse location.
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A demonstrative functions as
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Generic
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A demonstrative is a kind of
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What is deontic modality?
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Definition
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Deontic modality is modality that connotes the speaker's
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degree of requirement of
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desire for, or
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commitment to the realization of
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the
proposition
expressed by the
utterance
.
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Examples (English)
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You
may
go at four o’clock.
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All elections
shall
take place on schedule.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of deontic modality:
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Generic
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Deontic modality is a kind of
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What is the dependent of a phrase?
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Definition
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The dependent of a phrase is any element in a phrase that does not refer to the same entity that the whole phrase refers to.
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Example (English)
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‘John’ in ‘John's book’
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Definition
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Derivation is the formation of a new
word
or inflectable stem from another word or
stem
. It typically occurs by the addition of an
affix
.
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The derived word is often of a different word class from the original. It may thus take the
inflectional affixes
of the new word class.
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Discussion
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In contrast to
inflection
, derivation
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is not obligatory
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typically produces a greater change of meaning from the original form, and
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is more likely to result in a form which has a somewhat idiosyncratic meaning.
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often changes the grammatical category of a root
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Examples (English)
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Kindness
is derived from
kind.
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Joyful
is derived from
joy.
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Amazement
is derived from
amaze.
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Speaker
is derived from
speak.
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National
is derived from
nation.
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Characteristics
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Derivational operations
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of derivation:
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Here are some kinds of derivational operations:
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Operations that change the grammatical category of a root
Example: Nominalization (English)
Verbs and adjectives can be turned into nouns: amaze >
amazement,
speak >
speaker,
perform >
performance,
soft >
softness,
warm >
warmth
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Operations that change the valence (transitivity) of a root, and
Example: Causation (Swahili)
kula
'to eat' >
kulisha,
'to feed'
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Generic
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Derivation is a kind of
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What is a derivational affix?
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Definition
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A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (
derived
) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.
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Discussion
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In contrast to an
inflectional affix
, a derivational affix
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is not part of an obligatory set of affixes
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generally occurs closer to the
root
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generally is more meaningful, and
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is more likely to result in a form that has a somewhat idiosyncratic meaning.
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Examples (English)
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Joy
ful
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Joyful
ness
-
Stapl
er
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of derivational affixes:
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Generic
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A derivational affix is a kind of
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Introduction
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In the lexical database, a derivative is usually entered as a
subentry
. Only irregular, semantic derivatives are entered as separate
major entries
.
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Definition
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A derivative is a
stem
that is formed by combining a
root
with an
affix
that adds a component of meaning that is more than just
inflectional
.
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The meaning of a derivative is determined by its context, not its parts.
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Also known as:
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derived form, derived stem
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of derivatives:
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Grammatical derivatives
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Example:
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Nominalized stems, such as
encouragement
from
encourage
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Adverbialized stems, such as
courageously
from
courageous
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Semantic derivatives
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Example:
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nominalized stems, such as
generation
from
generate
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What is a description relation?
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Definition
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A description relation is an elaboration relation in which a
proposition(s)
provides the “contents” of an act of perception or cognition expressed by another proposition.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A description relation is a kind of
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What is a descriptive text?
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Definition
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A descriptive text is a text which lists the characteristics of something.
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Features
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The topic is usually about the attributes of a thing.
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Third person
pronoun
forms are used.
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Examples (English)
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Requirements for employment
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The appearance of a person
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The details of a location
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Definition
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A determiner is a word or
affix
that belongs to a class of noun modifiers that expresses the reference, including quantity, of a
noun
.
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Example (English)
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all these
houses
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of determiners:
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Generic
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A determiner is a kind of
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What is a development lexical relation?
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Introduction
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Understanding the development
lexical relation
is important for using words which refer to the
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natural stages of growth and change in living things, and
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evolvement or expansion of nonliving things of which humans are the agents.
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Definition
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A development lexical relation is an association between
lexical units
which refers to stages or steps in a process involving change such as
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Examples (English)
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Growth
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{newborn, infant, toddler, child, adolescent, adult}
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{seed, bud, flower}
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Process
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{ember, spark, flame, blazing fire}
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{planning, design, implementation, production, evaluation}
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Underlying structure
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A development set has the structure of a scale.
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See:
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What is a lexical relation with a scale structure
for other examples of similar lexical relations in English.
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What is a dialogue discourse?
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Generic
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A dialogue discourse is a kind of
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What is a different subject marker?
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Definition
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A different subject marker is a marker in the
verb
morphology of a
clause
which indicates that the
subject
of the clause is not the same as the subject of some other clause. The other clause is maybe
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Generic
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A different subject marker is a kind of
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Definition
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A diphthong is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a vowel and a glide, that is interpreted as a single vowel.
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What is a direct illocution?
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Definition
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A direct illocution is an illocutionary act in which only the
illocutionary force
and
propositional
content literally expressed by the lexical items and syntactic form of the
utterance
are communicated.
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Generic
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A direct illocution is a kind of
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Definition
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A direct object is a
grammatical relation
that exhibits a combination of certain independent syntactic properties, such as the following:
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The usual grammatical characteristics of the patient of typically
transitive
verbs
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A particular
case
marking
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A particular
clause
position
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The conditioning of an agreement
affix
on the verb
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The capability of becoming the clause subject in
passivization
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The capability of reflexivization
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The identification of the direct object relation may be further confirmed by finding significant overlap with similar direct object relations previously established in other languages. This may be done by analyzing correspondence between
translation equivalents
.
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Discussion
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The direct object relation should be identified on a language-specific basis.
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Generic
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A direct object is a kind of
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Definition
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Direct speech is quoted speech that is presented without modification, as it might have been uttered by the original
speaker
.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Direct speech is a kind of
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What is a directive illocutionary point?
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Definition
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A directive illocutionary point is an illocutionary point in which the
speaker
attempts to get someone to bring about the state of affairs described by the
propositional
content of the
utterance
.
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Discussion
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According to certain analyses, a directive illocutionary point is one of the five basic purposes that a speaker can have in making an utterance.
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Generic
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A directive illocutionary point is a kind of
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What is directive modality?
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Definition
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Directive modality is a deontic modality that connotes the speaker’s degree of requirement of conformity to the proposition expressed by an
utterance
.
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Discussion
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If the usage of the term
directive modality
is extended beyond discussion of solely grammaticalized means of expression, it becomes nearly synonymous with
directive illocutionary point
.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of directive modality:
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Generic
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Directive modality is a kind of
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What are discontinuous constituents?
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Definition
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Discontinuous constituents are constituents which are
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separated from each other by one or more intervening constituent, and
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considered either
-
syntactically contiguous and unitary, or
-
realizing the same, single meaning.
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Examples (English)
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Here are some examples of discontinuous constituents in English:
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Certain phrasal verbs, such as
“switch
the light
on”
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Word segments separated by expletive insertions, such as
“abso
-bloomin-
lutely”
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Inflectional agreement markers
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Example (French)
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The French negative
ne … pas
are discontinuous constituents:
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Je
ne
sais
pas.
‘I don’t know.’
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Generic
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Discontinuous constituents are a kind of
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What is a discontinuous morpheme?
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Definition
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A discontinuous morpheme is a
morpheme
that is interrupted by the insertion of another morphological unit.
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Examples (Philippines)
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A root containing an infix from Tagalog (Philippines):
bili
: root ‘buy’
-um-
: infix ‘AGT’
bumili
: word ‘bought’
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A circumfix surrounding a root from Tuwali Ifugao (Philippines):
baddang
: root ‘help’
v.
ka--an
: circumfix ‘NOMR’
kabaddangan
: word ‘helpfulness’
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Definition
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A discourse is an instance of language use whose type can be classified on the basis of such factors as grammatical and lexical choices and their distribution in
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main versus supportive materials
-
theme
-
style, and
-
the framework of knowledge and expectations within which the
addressee
interprets the discourse.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of discourse:
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Generic
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A discourse is a kind of
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What is discourse deixis?
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Definition
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Discourse deixis is
deictic
reference to a portion of a
discourse
relative to the
speaker
's current “location” in the discourse.
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Examples (English)
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Use of
this
to refer to a story one is about to tell in:
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Reference to Chapter 7 of a book by means of
in the next chapter
or
in the previous chapter,
depending on whether the reference is made from Chapter 6 or 8.
-
Use of
this
in a creaky-voiced utterance of:
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of discourse deixis:
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Generic
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Discourse deixis is a kind of
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What is a discourse schema?
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Definition
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A discourse schema (plural:
schemata
) is a sequenced group of text elements that is categorized by the text's genre.
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Examples
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A narative schema consists of the following elements:
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Exposition or setting
-
Inciting moment
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Developing conflict
-
Climax
-
Denouement
-
Final suspense
-
Conclusion
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of discourse schemata:
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What is a dismissive relation?
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Definition
|
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A dismissive relation is an interpropositional relation which communicates the irrelevancy of some
proposition(s)
to some other(s) without communicating contraexpectation.
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Examples (English)
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We may be back tonight; I'm not sure; either way, just make yourselves at home.
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Expressions such as
anyhow
or
at any rate,
either in a context similar to the first example or when functioning as subject-changers.
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Generic
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A dismissive relation is a kind of
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What is a dispreferred second part?
|
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Definition
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A dispreferred second part is a second part of an
adjacency pair
that
|
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Examples (English)
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A refusal in response to a request, offer, or invitation
-
A disagreement in response to an assessment
-
An unexpected answer in response to a question
-
An admission in response to blame
|
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Generic
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A dispreferred second part is a kind of
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Generic
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A distal is a kind of
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What is distributive aspect?
|
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Definition
|
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Distributive aspect is an iterative aspect which expresses that an event is applied to members of a group one after another. These members are typically the
referents
named by
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Example (Russian)
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Russian
po-
in
On po-zapiral dveri.
`He locked the doors one at a time.'
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Generic
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Distributive aspect is a kind of
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What is a distributive numeral?
|
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Definition
|
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A distributive numeral is a numeral which expresses a group of the number specified.
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Generic
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A distributive numeral is a kind of
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Definition
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Ditransitivity is a term which describes a verb or clause which takes two
objects
.
|
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Also known as:
|
bitransitivity
|
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Example (English)
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Generic
|
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Ditransitivity is a kind of
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What is a diversion schema?
|
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Definition
|
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A diversion schema is a force schema that involves forces that physically or metaphorically meet and produce a change of direction.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A diversion schema is a kind of
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Definition
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A double stop consists of simultaneous labial and velar articulation.
|
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Examples
|
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There are voiceless, voiced, and prenasalized double stops:
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Voiceless: /kp/
-
Voiced: /gb/
-
Prenasalized: /Nmgb/ and /Nmkp/
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These occur routinely in African languages.
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Definition
|
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A downgrade is a move that weakens or mitigates a previous
utterance
in order to make it more acceptable.
|
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Examples (English)
|
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Adding an offer of assistance to a request in order to make it more acceptable
-
Suggesting ways a request could be easily accomplished in order to make it more acceptable
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Generic
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A downgrade is a kind of
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Definition
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Dual number is number which refers to two members of the class identified by the
noun
.
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Generic
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Dual number is a kind of
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Definition
|
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Dubitative mood is an
epistemic mood
which signals a speaker’s reservation about the accuracy of his or her statement.
|
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Example (Ojibwa)
|
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Generic
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Dubitative mood is a kind of
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Definition
|
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A dummy word is a grammatical unit that has no meaning, but completes a sentence to make it grammatical.
|
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Examples (English)
|
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It
is raining.
-
Does
he know?
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Generic
|
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A dummy word is a kind of
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