Linguistic terminology terms | LETTER - C
What is a cardinal numeral?
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Definition
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A cardinal numeral is a numeral of the class whose members are
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considered basic in form
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used in counting, and
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used in expressing how many objects are referred to.
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Examples (English)
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one
-
two
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twenty
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one hundred
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Generic
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A cardinal numeral is a kind of
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Discussion
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The term
case
has traditionally been restricted to apply to only those languages which indicate certain functions by the
inflection
of
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nouns
-
pronouns, or
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noun phrase
constituents
, such as adjectives and numerals.
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Example:
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The Latin sentences
Canis hominem mordet
‘Dog bites man’ and
Canem homo mordet
‘Man bites dog’, illustrate that differing case endings express the differing functions of the nouns in Latin.
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The term is sometimes extended to include such functions expressed by
adpositions
.
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Example (Japanese)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of cases:
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Generic
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Case is a kind of
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Definition
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Cataphora is the
coreference
of one expression with another expression which follows it. The following expression provides the information necessary for interpretation of the preceding one.
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This is often understood as an expression “referring” forward to another expression.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Cataphora is a kind of
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What is a causal relation?
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Definition
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A causal relation is an interpropositional relation in which the situation expressed by some
proposition(s)
is communicated as bringing about
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the situation expressed by some other proposition(s) (an
external relation
), or
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the usage of some other proposition(s) in a reasoning or argument from a premise (an
internal relation
).
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of causal relations:
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Generic
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A causal relation is a kind of
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Definition
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A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a
referent
in relation to an event or state expressed by a
verb
.
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Discussion
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A causative may be indicated by a
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Examples (English)
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Herod
had
John killed.
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The sun
solidified
the mixture.
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Definition
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Causative case is a case which expresses that the
referent
of the
noun
it marks is the cause of the situation expressed by the
clause
.
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Generic
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Causative case is a kind of
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What is causer as a semantic role?
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Definition
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Causer is the
semantic role
of the
referent
which instigates an event rather than actually doing it.
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Discussion
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The causer is usually the surface
subject
of the
verb
in a sentence.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A causer is a kind of
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What is a center-periphery schema?
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Definition
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A center–periphery schema is an image schema involving
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a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
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degrees of distance from the core.
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Examples (English)
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The structure of an apple
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An individual’s perceptual sphere
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An individual’s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality
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Generic
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A center–periphery schema is a kind of
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Definition
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A centrifugal is an expression of
place deixis
that has a component of meaning indicating movement away from a
deictic center
.
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Generic
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A centrifugal is a kind of
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Definition
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A centripetal is an expression of
place deixis
which has a component of meaning indicating movement toward a
deictic center
.
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Example (Archaic English)
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Generic
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A centripetal is a kind of
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What is cessative aspect?
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Definition
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Cessative aspect is aspect that expresses the cessation of an event or state.
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Generic
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Cessative aspect is a kind of
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What is a chain of illocutionary commitments?
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Definition
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A chain of illocutionary commitments is a set of
illocutionary acts
which are ordered by the relationship of
commitment
between acts.
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Example (English)
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What is a circular definition?
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Definition
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A circular definition is a description of the meaning of a
lexeme
that is constructed using one or more
synonymous
lexemes that are all defined in terms of each other.
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Example (lexemes)
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fast
—adj. 'swift; quick; speedy'
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swift
—adj. 'rapid; fast'
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Here is how the circularity can be resolved by the addition of an
analytic definition
and
supplemental information
:
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fast
—adj. 'rapid in movement or action, often referring to the person or thing that moves; swift; quick; speedy'
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swift
—adj. 'moving or capable of moving with great speed, often in a smooth and easy manner; rapid; fast'
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Definition
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A circumfix is an
affix
made up of two separate parts which surround and attach to a
root
or
stem
.
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The morphological process whereby this is achieved is called
circumfixation.
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Example (Tuwali Ifugao, Philippines)
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The circumfix
ka--an
is a nominalizer and surrounds a root.
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Generic
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A circumfix is a kind of
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Definition
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Circumfixation is a morphological process whereby an
affix
made up of two separate parts surrounds and attaches to a
root
or
stem
.
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Generic
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A circumfixation is a kind of
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Definition
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A classifier is a word or
affix
that expresses the classification of a
noun
.
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Examples (Spanish)
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Generic
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A classifier is a kind of
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What is a clausal implicature?
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Definition
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A clausal implicature is a quantity implicature which is inferred by an addressee concerning the truth of a
proposition
expressed in a particular
subordinate
or
coordinate clause
. The addressee infers that the proposition may or may not be true.
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The complex or compound sentence of which the clause is a part does not indicate whether the proposition expressed by the clause is true or false.
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Discussion
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There will be another sentence available which would entail that the proposition expressed by the clause is true. This sentence must be identical to the sentence under scrutiny except that, in one of its clauses, an expression has been substituted which is stronger than that used by the speaker.
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Example (English)
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If John were certain to be away, then the expression would have been something like
I know John is away.
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Generic
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A clausal implicature is a kind of
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Definition
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A clause is a grammatical unit that
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Examples (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of clauses:
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Generic
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A clause is a kind of
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Definition
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A clause chain is a group of
clauses
in which
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one clause, typically the final clause, is distinguished from the other clauses, typically
medial clauses
, by a difference of verb morphology, and
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each medial clause is marked to show whether or not its
subject
is the same as the subject of some
reference clause
. The reference clause may follow it or may be the final clause in the chain.
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Generic
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A clause chain is a kind of
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What is a cleft sentence?
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Discussion
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X and the subordinate clause together carry the same meaning as their corresponding
simple sentence
. However, the primary focus of the cleft construction is on an element, often marked by intonation, that introduces new information. This element appears either as X or in the subordinate clause.
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Example (English)
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Its corresponding simple sentence is
No, I shall ignore his callousness.
The primary focus of the cleft sentence may be marked by intonation, as in following sentences:
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No, it is his
callousness
that I shall ignore.
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No, it is his callousness that I shall
ignore.
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Generic
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A cleft sentence is a kind of
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Kind
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Here is a kind of cleft sentence:
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What is a clitic? (Grammar)
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Definition
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A clitic is a
morpheme
that has syntactic characteristics of a
word
, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word.
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Features
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Phonologically bound but syntactically free
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Function at phrase or clause level
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Cannot be integrated into standard discourse without being bound to some other form
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Often have grammatical rather than lexical meaning
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Belong to closed classes like pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions
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Usually attach to the edges of words, outside of derivational and inflectional affixes
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Often attach to several syntactic categories of words such as head noun, non-head noun, preposition, verb, or adverb
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Phonologically unstressed
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Discussion
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A clitic may have a nonclitic alternant.
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Examples (English)
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The contraction of the morpheme
is,
as in
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The possessive marker
's,
as in
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Kinds
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Here are the two kinds of clitics:
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proclitic, occurring at the beginning of a morpheme
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enclitic
, occurring at the end of a morpheme
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Note:
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Clitics that occur on the last element of a clause will always cliticize to the end of that element. (See
Payne, T. 1997b
)
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Generic
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A clitic is a kind of
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Comparison and contrast: clitic versus affix
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Here is a table that compares and contrasts clitics and affixes:
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What is close future tense?
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Definition
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Close future tense is a tense that refers to a time shortly after the moment of
utterance
.
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Discussion
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Close future tense typically refers to a time within a span ranging through the end of the time culturally defined as "tomorrow."
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Generic
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Close future tense is a kind of
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Definition
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A closed class is a grammatical class of words with limited membership. These words have primarily grammatical meaning.
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Definition
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Coding time is the time of
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Example (English)
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Definition
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Collateral information expresses a nonevent, something that did not or has not yet happened.
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Kinds
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denial:
John did not drown
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question:
will John drown?
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prediction:
John's going to drown
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What is a collective noun?
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Definition
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A collective noun is a noun that refers to a group of entities that may be considered either as individuals or as one larger entity.
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Discussion
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A collective noun may
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agree grammatically with the verb either as a
singular
noun or as a
plural
noun, and
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take either a singular or plural
pronoun
.
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Examples (English)
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Club
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Examples:
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It is a large club.
They are a large club.
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Gang
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Examples:
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The gang’s all here.
The gang are all here.
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Generic
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A collective noun is a kind of
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Definition
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Collocates are
lexemes
that co-occur with each other in natural texts.
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Discussion
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Collocates may be characterized as follows:
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Syntactically and semantically permissible
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Example:
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'There was green grass growing everywhere.'
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Syntactically permissible but semantically impermissible (commonly referred to as
collocational clashes
)
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Example:
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'There were
green ideas
growing everywhere.'
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Syntactically impermissible but semantically permissible
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Example:
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'There was green grass
grows
everywhere.'
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Syntactically and semantically impermissible
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Example:
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'There
was green ideas grows
everywhere.'
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Collocates may also be characterized as follows:
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Syntactically and semantically permissible, but incidental, as in
live metaphors
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Example:
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'The barn was painted
red
like a
tomato.'
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Syntactically and semantically permissible, but fixed in usage, as in
dead metaphors
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Example:
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'He turned as
red as a beet.'
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Definition
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Comitative case is a case expressing accompaniment.
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It carries the meaning "with" or "accompanied by."
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Generic
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Comitative case is a kind of
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Definition
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Here are two senses for
command:
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A command is an
illocutionary act
that has the
directive illocutionary point
of getting another to do or not to do something.
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A command is a syntactic sentence type in a language that is used primarily to express such illocutionary acts, and is described as having imperative form.
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Discussion
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The meaning for the term
command
does not appear to extend to such
utterances
as
It’s hot in here.
This utterance might have the intended
perlocutionary
effect of getting the addressee to open a window, but it does not have that as a directive illocutionary point.
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Examples (English)
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Turn off the radio, please.
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Would you turn off the radio?
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Generic
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A command is a kind of
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Definition
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A comment is the portion of a
sentence
that provides information about the
topic
.
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Example (English)
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What is a commissive illocutionary point?
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Definition
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A commissive illocutionary point is the illocutionary point of a
speaker
committing to bring about the state of affairs described in the
propositional
content of the
utterance
.
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Discussion
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According to certain analyses, a commissive illocutionary point is one of the five basic purposes that a speaker can have in making an utterance.
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Generic
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A commissive illocutionary point is a kind of
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What is commissive modality?
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Definition
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Commissive modality is a deontic modality that connotes the
speaker
's expressed commitment, as a promise or threat, to bring about the
proposition
expressed by the
utterance
.
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Discussion
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If the usage of the term
commissive modality
is extended beyond solely grammaticalized means of expression, it becomes nearly synonymous with
commissive illocutionary point
.
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Example (English)
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This statement is understood as the speaker’s own commitment to avoid delays.
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Generic
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Commissive modality is a kind of
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What is commitment between illocutionary acts?
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Definition
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Commitment between illocutionary acts is a condition in which the
speaker
's commitment to one
illocutionary act
necessarily means the commitment to some other illocutionary act, regardless of the context of
utterance
.
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Examples (English)
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The performance of an act of demanding commits one to an act of requesting
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The commitment to a promise commits one to an act of asserting that one is not saying one does not promise
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The commitment to a
conjunctive illocutionary act
commits the speaker to each of the
elementary illocutionary acts
contained within it
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Definition
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A common noun is a
noun
that signifies a nonspecific member of a group.
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Definition 1
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Traditionally, a complement is a
constituent
of a clause, such as a noun phrase or adjective phrase, that is used to
predicate
a description of the
subject
or
object
of the clause.
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Kinds
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Here are some kindsof complements under this definition:
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Definition 2
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In generative syntax, a complement is a phrasal or clausal category which is selected (subcategorized) by the
head
of a phrase.
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Discussion
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A selected, or subcategorized, phrase is obligatory, as contrasted with
adjuncts
, which are optional. For instance, the
direct object
of a
transitive verb
is obligatory and therefore a complement, whereas adverbial modifiers are generally optional, and therefore non-complements. However, the distinction is not always clear, particularly for
oblique
arguments. Neither is the distinction clear in languages in which complements can be freely omitted if they are understood from the context. Omission must be distinguished from pronominalization; pronouns may generally be considered to be complements. However, in some languages pronouns have been grammaticalized as verbal
affixes
, in which case the question of whether they are complements or not becomes a theory-internal question. (See
Baker 1996
, chapter one for discussion of this issue.)
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The complement/
adjunct
distinction cross-cuts the
core
/
oblique
distinction, since there are obliques which are complements, and other obliques which are adjuncts. Also, while the subject of a clause is often considered a core argument of the verb, it is not normally considered to be a complement. This is because in most (perhaps all) languages, the subject appears to be a clause-level constituent, rather than a constituent of the verb phrase. However, it should be noted that this argument presupposes that the verb and its object belong to the same phrase-level constituent, while the subject is outside that constituent, an analysis which leaves the status of subject and object in VSO languages unclear.
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Examples (English)
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Robin read
the book
. (direct object complement of the verb)
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Robin gave it
to me
. (indirect object complement of the verb)
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Erin put it
on the shelf
. (obligatory locative complement of the verb--one cannot say,
*Erin put it.
)
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This problem seems
quite difficult
. (adjective phrase complement of the verb)
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They doubted
whether it was possible
. (sentential complement of the verb)
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...under
the table
(noun phrase complement of a preposition)
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...hard
to understand
(verb phrase complement of an adjective)
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Nonexamples (English)
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We gave up
quickly.
("quickly" is an adjunct modifier of the verb phrase)
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They'll leave,
I suspect.
("I suspect" is a parenthetical modifying the entire clause)
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Generic
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A complement is a kind of
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What is a complement clause?
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Discussion
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The term
complement clause
is extended by some analysts to include clauses selected by
nouns
or
adjectives
.
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Examples:
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I heard the evidence
that he did it.
I am sure
that he did it.
I am not certain
what we did.
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Examples
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We thought
that you were coming.
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For you to come
would be a mistake.
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I wonder
whether you are coming.
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Nonexamples
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Elsie fled
to escape the hurricane.
(a purpose clause that is not an argument of a predicate)
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Milton came on stage
juggling balls.
(a manner clause that is not an argument of a predicate)
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The mouse ate the cheese
that was laying out.
(a relative clause that modifies a noun and is not itself an argument of a predicate)
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The plumber arrived
who we had called earlier.
(
who we had called earlier
is a relative clause—see the discussion)
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Discussion
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Relative clauses
are not complement clauses. Relative clauses modify a noun phrase, whereas complement clauses are arguments which are selected by a verb, noun, or adjective. In some languages, relative clauses have a gap--a missing NP argument--which is understood to refer to the NP that the relative clause modifies. For instance, in "the person that saw you," the subject of the clause "saw you" is missing, but is understood to be "the person" that the NP as a whole refers to. Complement clauses do not usually have such a gap. For instance, in "the fact that he saw you," the clause "he saw you" does not have any missing arguments. This distinction, however, cannot be used in languages in which it is possible to omit the subject or other clausal arguments freely. This distinction is also not useful in languages which have internally headed relative clauses.
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Adverbial clauses
are also not complement clauses. Adverbial clauses may modify any verb phrase or sentence, provided they fit semantically, and fill the same role that a purpose, manner, locative or temporal adverb would fill; whereas complement clauses are specifically selected as
complements
(arguments) by verbs, adjectives or nouns.
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Generic
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A complement clause is a kind of
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What is complementary distribution?
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Definition
|
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Complementary distribution is the mutually exclusive relationship between two
phonetically similar segments
. It exists when one segment occurs in an
environment
where the other segment never occurs.
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Discussion
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The rationale for complementary distribution comes from one of the principles of phonemics:
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A
phoneme
is made up of certain features that are basic to it. When this phoneme occurs in certain phonetic environments, one or more of its features may undergo changes caused by those environments.
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Examples (English)
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The phones [p] and [pH] are in complementary distribution. [pH] occurs syllable-initially in a stressed syllable, but [p] never does, as demonstrated here:
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Phonetic representation
|
Gloss
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Underlying representation
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pHEpp«&u0279
|
'pepper'
|
/pEpp«&u0279/
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spIn
|
'spin'
|
/spIn/
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Examples: Cashinahua (Brazil/Peru)
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The phones [b] and [B] are in complementary distribution. [b] occurs only at the beginning of words, while [B] occurs between vowels, as demonstrated here:
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Phonetic representation
|
Gloss
|
Underlying representation
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baka
|
‘fish’
|
/baka/
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taBa
|
‘washboard’
|
/taba/
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What is a complementizer?
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Examples (English)
|
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I know
that
he is here.
-
I refuted the supposition
that
he is here.
-
I am doubtful
that
he is here.
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Generic
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A complementizer is a kind of
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What is a complex illocutionary act?
|
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Definition
|
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A complex illocutionary act is an illocutionary act that
|
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has a negated
illocutionary force
-
is performed conditionally, or
-
is conjoined with another illocutionary act
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Kinds
|
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Here are some kinds of complex illocutionary acts:
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Generic
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A complex illocutionary act is a kind of
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What is a complex sentence?
|
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Definition
|
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A complex sentence is a sentence which includes
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Example (English)
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Kinds
|
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Here are some kinds of complex sentence:
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Generic
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A complex sentence is a kind of
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Definition
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A compound is a word containing a
stem
that is made up of more than one
root
.
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Example (English)
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Blackboard
contains a stem that refers to "a large, smooth, usually dark surface on which to write or draw with chalk". However, the stem is made up of two roots,
black
and
board.
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What is a compound discourse?
|
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Definition
|
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A compound discourse is a
discourse
that contains sections belonging to two or more kinds of discourse.
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Kind
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Here is a kind of compound discourse:
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Generic
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A compound discourse is a kind of
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What is a compound predicate?
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Generic
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A compound predicate is a kind of
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What is a compound sentence?
|
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Generic
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A compound sentence is a kind of
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What is a compulsion schema?
|
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Definition
|
|
A compulsion schema is a force schema that involves an external force physically or metaphorically pushing, or tending to push, an object.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A compulsion schema is a kind of
|
|
|
What is conceptual extendedness?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Conceptual extendedness is a semantic relationship between
senses
of a
lexeme
as currently recognized by speakers of a language.
|
|
The progressive derivation of more figurative senses from the basic literal sense can be divided into three stages:
|
|
|
|
In LinguaLinks, a sense in the lexical database may be classified by one of these categories to help in comparing it with other senses. The relationship of a particular sense to the primary sense, however, is somewhere on a continuum of conceptual extendedness. The classification is subjective, therefore, and should not be considered precise.
|
|
Examples: English verb
(rake)
|
-
Primary
-
'to gather or scrape together with or as with a rake'
-
'to scratch or smooth with a rake, as in leveling broken ground'
-
Secondary
-
'to gather with great care'
-
'to scratch or scrape'
-
'to cover a fire with ashes (metonymy)'
-
Figurative
-
'to search through minutely; scour (metaphor)'
-
'to direct gunfire along a surface such as a line of troops or the deck of a ship'
-
'to look over rapidly and searchingly'
|
|
Nonexample: English noun
(bank)
|
|
Here is a nonexample of conceptual extendedness as illustrated by the English noun
bank
using only the primary senses of each lexeme:
|
|
|
|
These three lexemes were semantically related in Old High German. However, an English speaker today would not consider them to be semantically related at all, even though the words sound the same and are written the same. They are therefore considered to be
homographs
rather than three senses of the same lexeme.
|
What is a concession relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A concession relation is a relation of unexpectedness between
propositions
. Some proposition(s) in the relation are expressed as unexpected (the
contraexpectation
) in light of some other proposition(s) (the
concession
).
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
Even though
it was 5:00, the streets were clear.
-
Yet
-
Nevertheless
-
Although
-
Certain senses of
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of concession relations:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A concession relation is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A concrete noun is a noun that refers to what is viewed as a material entity.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A concrete noun is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conditional relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conditional relation is a logical relation in which the
illocutionary act
employing one of a pair of
propositions
is expressed or implied to be true or in force if the other proposition is true.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
If you give her the ring,
then you are married to her.
I hereby pronounce you married.
Are you married to her?
Do marry her.
If only you would marry her!
-
Once admit that they have a case, and your moral superiority collapses.
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of conditional relations:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conditional relation is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conjunction is a word that
|
-
syntactically links words or larger
constituents
, and
-
expresses a semantic relationship between them.
|
|
A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English
conjunctive adverbs
.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
Coordinating conjunctions
-
Subordinating conjunctions
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of conjunctions:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conjunction is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conjunctive adverb?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that functions like a
conjunction
by expressing the relationship between independent
sentences
.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
In English, a conjunctive adverb’s position in a sentence is flexible.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
I don’t like the job;
still,
I’ll take it.
-
I don’t like the job; I’ll take it,
still.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conjunctive adverb is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conjunctive illocutionary act?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conjunctive illocutionary act is a complex illocutionary act that consists of the performance of two or more
illocutionary acts
in one
utterance
.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conjunctive illocutionary act is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conjunctive verb?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conjunctive verb is a verb form which is used specifically in a conjoined
clause
.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
A conjunctive verb has a verb form which differs from that of the clause to which it is conjoined.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conjunctive verb is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
Here are two senses of
connective:
|
-
A connective, in its most common usage, is an expression having a function similar to that of a
conjunction
.
-
A connective, broadly defined, is any linguistic unit that links two other
constituents
together.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
and
-
or
-
but
-
whereas
-
in case
-
thus
-
the result is
-
so much that
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A consonant is a sound made by a partial or complete closure of the vocal tract.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
A consonant is produced by an interaction between a passive articulator and an active articulator. The active articulator is brought into contact with or in close proximity to the passive articulator.
|
|
Here are the two parameters for identifying consonants:
|
|
|
|
The production of consonants can be modified. For more information,
|
|
|
What is a consonant modification?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A consonant modification is an addition or alteration to the basic way that a
consonant
is articulated.
|
|
Definition
|
|
A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or morphologically into a
construction
at any level.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of constituents:
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A construction is an ordered arrangement of grammatical units forming a larger unit.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
Different usages of the term
construction
include or exclude stems and words.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
[subject + verb + object] forms a clause
-
[determiner + noun] forms a noun phrase
-
[adjective + noun + plural marker] forms a compound noun
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of constructions:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A construction is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A containment metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which some concept is represented as
|
-
having an inside and outside, and
-
capable of holding something else.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A container metaphor is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a containment schema?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A containment schema is an image schema that involves a physical or metaphorical
|
-
boundary
-
enclosed area or volume, or
-
excluded area or volume.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
A containment schema can have additional optional properties, such as
|
-
transitivity of enclosure (whereby if one object is enclosed by a second, and that by a third, the first is also enclosed by the third)
-
objects inside or outside the boundary
-
protectedness of an enclosed object
-
the restriction of forces inside the enclosure, and
-
the relatively fixed position of an enclosed object.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A containment schema is a kind of
|
|
|
What is the context of an expression?
|
|
Definition
|
|
The context of an expression or a text is the social situation in which something is said. It includes any information relevant to understanding the appropriate use of an expression or the interpretation of a text.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
The context of an expression answers the following questions:
|
-
Who said it? Who was addressed?
-
What were the circumstances? What was the occasion?
-
When was this word or expression used? When was the text given?
-
Where was it spoken?
-
Why was it spoken?
-
How was it spoken? How was it received?
|
|
Examples: Speech registers in Javanese (Indonesia)
|
|
In Javanese, the social context of an expression is very important. The difference in social status between the speaker and the hearer determines the choice of speech register.
|
|
Formal register
|
|
When speaking to someone with a higher status, you use a
formal
register.
|
|
|
|
Informal register
|
|
When speaking to someone with a lower status, you use an
informal
register:
|
|
|
|
Note that both expressions mean the same thing. It is, therefore, very important in data collection to record the social context of an expression.
|
|
Definition
|
|
A continuant is a sound produced with an incomplete closure of the vocal tract.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
All vowels and fricatives are continuants.
|
|
Antonym
|
|
The antonym of a continuant is
|
|
stop
.
|
|
Definition
|
|
A continuer is a move that returns speakership to another participant.
|
|
It shows that the
speaker
|
-
recognizes that the other participant is forming a lengthy unit of talk, and
-
allows the participant to continue.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A continuer is a kind of
|
|
|
What is continuous aspect?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Continuous aspect is an imperfective aspect that expresses an ongoing, but not habitual, occurrence of the state or event expressed by the
verb
.
|
|
Example (Quechua)
|
|
|
|
Kind
|
|
Here is a kind of continuous aspect:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
Continuous aspect is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A contoid is a sound made with enough closure of the oral cavity to produce audible friction in the mouth.
|
|
It has the potential to be analyzed phonemically as a consonant.
|
|
Instances
|
|
Contoids are pronounced with different manners of articulation.
|
|
Here is a table showing examples of different manners of articulation for contoids:
|
|
Manner of articulation
|
Examples
|
|
Plosive (stops)
|
[p], [b], [d], [t], [k], [g]
|
|
Nasal
|
[m], [n], [ø], [N]
|
|
Flap
|
[R]
|
|
Trill
|
[r], [{]
|
|
Fricative (sibilant, spirant)
|
[B], [D], [T], [f], [v], [s], [z], [&u0278], [h]
|
|
Affricate
|
[tS], [dZ]
|
|
Lateral
|
[l]
|
|
Liquid, approximant, semivowel
|
[&u0279], [Ó], [j], [w]
|
|
What is a contraction relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A contraction relation is an interpropositional relation in which information previously expressed is partially restated.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Kind
|
|
Here is a kind of contraction relation:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A contraction relation is a kind of
|
|
|
What is contrast in analogous environments?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Contrast in analogous environments is the difference between two
phonetically similar segments
that occur in two separate words and have similar adjacent sounds.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
If neither segment has been modified or affected by its
environment
, the segments are separate
phonemes
.
|
|
Examples (Kaiwa, Brazil)
|
|
The segments [p] and [b] contrast in analogous environments in the following words:
|
-
[opa] 'it is finished'
-
[aba] 'place'
|
|
The implication is that /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes.
|
What is contrast in identical environments?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Contrast in identical environments is the difference between two
phonetically similar segments
that occur in two separate words and have identical adjacent sounds.
|
|
If neither segment has been modified or affected by its
environment
, the segments are separate
phonemes
.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
The segments [l] and [r] contrast in identical environments in the following
minimal pair
.
|
|
|
|
The implication is that /l/ and /r/ are separate phonemes.
|
|
Examples (Cashinahua, Peru/Brazil)
|
|
The segments [s ] and [S] contrast in identical environments in the following minimal pair:
|
-
[m&u0268su] 'swollen hand'
-
[m&u0268Su] 'black, dark'
|
|
The implication is that /s/ and /S/ are separate phonemes.
|
What is a contrast relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A contrast relation is an interpropositional relation which expresses that a difference between one
proposition
and another is relevant.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
Kind
|
|
Here is a kind of contrast relation:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A contrast relation is a kind of
|
|
|
What is contrastive analysis?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language.
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of contrastive analysis:
|
-
Intralingual
-
Cross-linguistic
-
Comparative analysis of morphosyntactic systems
-
Comparative analysis of lexical semantics
-
Analysis of
translational equivalence
-
Study of interference in foreign language learning
|
What is conventional implicature?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Conventional implicature is an
implicature
that is
|
-
part of a lexical item’s or expression’s agreed meaning, rather than derived from principles of language use, and
-
not part of the conditions for the truth of the item or expression.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
Conventional implicature is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conventional metaphor is a metaphor that is commonly used in everyday language in a culture to give structure to some portion of that culture’s conceptual system.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
See also:
|
Conventional metaphors in English
for many more examples.
|
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of conventional metaphors:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conventional metaphor is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conventional metonymy?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conventional metonymy is a
metonymy
that is commonly used in everyday language in a culture to give structure to some portion of that culture’s conceptual system.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
See also:
|
Conventional metonymies in English
for many more examples.
|
|
What is conversation analysis?
|
|
Definition
|
|
Conversation analysis is an approach to the study of natural conversation, especially with a view to determining the following:
|
-
Participants’ methods of
-
turn
-taking
-
constructing sequences of
utterances
across turns
-
identifying and repairing problems, and
-
employing gaze and movement
-
How conversation works in different conventional settings
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
Here are some examples of conventional settings in which conversation analysis could take place:
|
-
Interviews
-
Court hearings
-
Telephone conversations
-
Card games
|
|
Generic
|
|
A conversation analysis is a kind of
|
|
|
What is conversational implicature?
|
|
Kinds
|
|
Here are some kinds of conversational implicatures:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
Conversational implicature is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a conversational maxim?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A conversational maxim is any of four rules which were proposed by
Grice 1975
, stating that a
speaker
is assumed to make a contribution that
|
-
is adequately but not overly informative (quantity maxim)
-
the speaker does not believe to be false and for which adequate evidence is had (quality maxim)
-
is relevant (maxim of relation or relevance), and
-
is clear, unambiguous, brief, and orderly (maxim of manner).
|
What is the cooperative principle?
|
|
Definition
|
|
The cooperative principle is a principle of conversation that was proposed by
Grice 1975
, stating that participants expect that each will make a “conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange.”
|
|
Discussion
|
|
The cooperative principle, along with the conversational maxims, partly accounts for
conversational implicatures
. Participants assume that a speaker is being cooperative, and thus they make conversational implicatures about what is said.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
What is a coordinate clause?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A coordinate clause is a clause belonging to a series of two or more clauses which
|
-
are not syntactically dependent one on another, and
-
are joined by means of
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
I will go home
and
he will go to work.
-
John likes hamburgers,
but
Mary prefers hot dogs.
-
We might go to Seattle,
or
we might go to California.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A coordinate clause is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a coordinating conjunction?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that links
constituents
without syntactically subordinating one to the other.
|
|
Kind
|
|
Here is a kind of coordinating conjunction:
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A coordinating conjunction is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
The book
is
on the table.
-
The weather
seems
good.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A copula is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Examples
|
|
In
John gave a donation to the Salvation Army,
the core arguments are
John, a donation,
and
Salvation Army.
|
|
Definition
|
|
Coreference is the reference in one expression to the same
referent
in another expression.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A coreference is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a correction relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A correction relation is an antithesis relation in which the speaker's expression of positive regard reinforces, redefines, or corrects one or the other of the contrasted
propositions
or groups of propositions.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
I would be glad if you came; in fact, I would be delighted.
-
He showed no pleasure at hearing the news; instead he looked even gloomier.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A correction relation is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a correlative conjunction?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A correlative conjunction is either of a pair of
coordinating conjunctions
used in ordered fashion. Typically, one is used immediately before each member of a pair of
constituents
.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A correlative conjunction is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A count noun is a noun whose possible
referents
are thought of as separate entities.
|
|
It thus has the ability
|
|
|
|
It does not have the ability, however, to occur with a determiner such as
much.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
Some nouns permit treatment as either count or
mass nouns
.
|
|
Example:
|
In English,
salad
may be treated as either a count or mass noun, as evidenced by the acceptability of the following expressions:
|
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A count noun is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a counteragent as a semantic role?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A counteragent is the
semantic role
of a force or resistance against which an action is carried out.
|
|
Generic
|
|
A counteragent is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a counterfactual conditional relation?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A counterfactual conditional relation is a conditional relation in which the form of expression of the
antecedent
and consequent marks them as imagined, nonfactual states or events.
|
|
Discussion
|
|
Comrie 1986
:89–90 establishes that the putative English counterfactuals do not contain the nonfactuality of either the antecedent or the consequent as part of their inherent meaning. Thus,
If you gave me a kiss, I’d buy you a beer
does not express the impossibility of either the kiss or the beer. Additionally, in
If the butler had done it, we would have found just the clues that we did in fact find,
it is clear that the consequent is factual, and factuality of the antecedent is possible.
|
|
Example (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A counterfactual conditional relation is a kind of
|
|
|
What is a counterforce schema?
|
|
Definition
|
|
A counterforce schema is a force schema that involves the active meeting of physically or metaphorically opposing forces.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
|
|
|
Generic
|
|
A counterforce schema is a kind of
|
|
|
|
Definition
|
|
A cycle schema is an image schema which involves repetitious events and event series.
|
|
Its structure includes the following:
|
-
A starting point
-
A progression through successive events without backtracking
-
A return to the initial state
|
|
The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.
|
|
Examples (English)
|
-
Days
-
Weeks
-
Years
-
Sleeping and waking
-
Breathing
-
Circulation
-
Emotional buildup and release
|
|
Generic
|
|
A cycle schema is a kind of
|
|
|
