Linguistic terminology terms | LETTER - R
What is range as a semantic role?
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Definition
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Range is the
semantic role
of the entity that completes, is a product of, or further specifies an event.
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Discussion
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The term
range
is used differently by some linguists, such as Grimes and Halliday. They give it the same meaning as
locative
or location.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Range is a kind of
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What is a range of reference?
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Examples
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Here are examples of the word
wrist
in three languages, illustrating different ranges of reference in each language:
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Language
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Lexical unit
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Range of reference
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English
translation equivalent
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Hebrew
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yad
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The part of the body from the fingertips to the wrist, sometimes including part of the forearm (in Genesis 24:47)
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wrist, hand, forearm
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Tuwali Ifugao
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takle
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The part of the body from the fingertips to the joint at the shoulder
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wrist, hand, arm
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English
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wrist
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The joint or part of the arm between the hand and the forearm
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Nonexamples
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Here are some other terms that may be confused with the term
range of reference:
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Referent identification
—the association of words, expressions or morphemes in a text with a particular participant or object
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Also known as:
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participant identification, participant tracking
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Range of meaning
—the different
senses
(lexical units) of a
lexeme
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Definition
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Rank is the relationship between units that refer to different values of some variable underlying property such as the following:
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Degree
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Grade
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Relative position
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Social position
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Stratum
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What is a rank lexical relation?
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Definition
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A rank
lexical relation
is an association between
lexical units
which have different relative values based on some shared underlying semantic property.
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Discussion
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Lexical units which are related by rank are likely to be functionally descriptive of the characteristics of an entity. They are likely to be
lexical categorized
as
nouns
.
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Examples (English)
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{private, corporal, sergeant, general}
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{Kindergarten, Grade 1, Grade 2,…}
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{priest, bishop, archbishop, cardinal, pope}
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Underlying structure
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A rank set has the structure of a scale.
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See:
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What is a lexical relation with a scale structure
for other examples of similar lexical relations in English.
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What is a ratified participant?
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Definition
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A ratified participant is one who, in a speech event, has the role of
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Generic
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A ratified participant is a kind of
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Definition
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Realis modality is a modality that connotes the factuality of a
proposition
.
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Discussion
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In its broad usage, the term
realis
is approximately equivalent in meaning to the term
indicative,
which in turn is used, narrowly, as a synonym to
declarative
.
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Generic
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Realis modality is a kind of
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What is a reason-result relation?
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Definition
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A reason-result relation is a causal relation in which the
propositions
express an event or state that brings about another event or state. The result occurs regardless of human intention or nonintention.
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Examples (English)
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He was sick, so he stayed home.
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The earth remains in orbit because it has sufficient velocity.
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Generic
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A reason-result relation is a kind of
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Example (English)
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What is recent past tense?
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Definition
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Recent past tense is a past tense that refers to a time, culturally and situationally defined, within the span ranging from yesterday to a week or a few months previous.
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Generic
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Recent past tense is a kind of
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What is a reciprocal pronoun?
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Definition
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A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a mutual feeling or action among the
referents
of a
plural
subject
.
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Examples (English)
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They hit
each other.
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They like
each other.
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Example (Ilocano, Philippines)
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Singular
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Plural
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pingan
'dish'
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pingpingan
'dishes'
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talon
'field'
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taltalon
'fields'
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Generic
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Reduplication is a kind of
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Definition
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Here are two senses for
reference:
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Reference is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object or abstraction it represents.
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Reference is the relationship of one linguistic expression to another, in which one provides the information necessary to interpret the other.
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Examples
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Here is an example of reference:
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of reference:
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Generic
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A reference is a kind of
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What is a reference clause?
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Definition
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Here are two senses of a
reference clause:
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A reference clause is a clause with an argument that, in a
marking clause
elsewhere in the sentence, is signaled as being coreferential or not to the argument of the marking clause.
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In a language having a
switch reference
system, a reference clause is a clause with an argument, which is typically the
subject
.
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Generic
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A reference clause is a kind of
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What is a reference grammar?
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Definition
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A reference grammar is a prose-like description of the major grammatical constructions in a language, illustrated with examples.
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Contrast
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Here is a table that contrasts reference grammars with pedagogical grammars:
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A reference grammar is …
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A pedagogical grammar is …
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Designed to teach someone
about
the language and to give readers a reference tool for looking up specific details of the language.
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Designed to teach someone
how to use
a language.
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Organized according to
universal structural categories.
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Organized according to
usefulness and ease of learning.
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Contains chapters which tend to be
longer
than those in a pedagogical grammar.
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Contains chapters which tend to be
short
and contain very brief grammatical explanations.
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Contains chapters which consist mostly of
explanation
plus one or two examples of every point mentioned.
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Contains chapters which consist mostly of
exercises
that help the reader practice and internalize the various structures as well as vocabulary and pronunciation.
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Written for individuals who have some
understanding of language as a universal phenomenon
and who wish to learn how the particular language described fits into universal understandings of human language.
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Written for anyone who is interested in
learning
a language.
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Parts
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Here are the parts of a reference grammar:
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Introduction
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Body
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Index
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Bibliography
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List of Abbreviations
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Introduction
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Words are used to represent things and experiences in the real or imagined world. Different words can be used to describe the same thing or experience.
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Definition
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A referent is the concrete object or concept that is designated by a word or expression. A referent is an object, action, state, relationship, or attribute in the
referential realm
.
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Example
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Historically, there was only one person called George Washington, the first president of the United States. He can be referred to in a text in many ways, such as
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the president
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Mr. Washington
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he,
or even
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my friend.
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Even though there are many ways to talk about him, there is only one referent in the referential realm.
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What is a referent honorific?
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Definition
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A referent honorific is an honorific for which both the
referent
and the target of the expression of relative social
status
are the same.
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Generic
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A referent honorific is a kind of
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What is the referential realm?
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Definition
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The referential realm is anything, real or imagined, that a person may talk about.
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What is a reflexive pronoun?
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A reflexive pronoun is a kind of
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What is a reflexive verb?
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Definition
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A reflexive verb is a verb whose
agent
performs an action that is directed at itself. It characteristically takes a
reflexive pronoun
as its
object
.
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Examples (English)
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Generic
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A reflexive verb is a kind of
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Definition
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A reformulation is a self-repair by means of a paraphrase of the repairable item.
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Example (English)
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I need a new bolt for my oil pan,
the bolt in the bottom for draining the oil.
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The response to the other-initiation in the following exchange is also a reformulation:
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Generic
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A reformulation is a kind of
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What is a rejection finalizer?
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Definition
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A rejection finalizer is a move that signals the
speaker
's acceptance of a rejection by another participant.
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The rejection may be of an offer that has previously been made to the other participant.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A rejection finalizer is a kind of
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What is a relational proposition?
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Definition
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A relational proposition is a proposition that
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arises as an
implicature
between two propositions or groups of propositions that are related by an
interpropositional relation
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expresses a relation
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arises even where the relation is not signaled in the text, as by a
conjunction
, and
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produces coherence in the text.
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Example (English)
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There is a relational proposition in this sequence that expresses a solutionhood relation and means "our going to Fuji Gardens is a (partial) solution to my problem of being hungry."
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Generic
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A relational proposition is a kind of
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What is relational social deixis?
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Definition
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Relational social deixis is
deictic
reference to a social relationship between the
speaker
and an
addressee
, bystander, or other
referent
in the extralinguistic context.
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Examples (French, Southeast Asian languages, Dyirbal)
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Distinctions between the French
second person
pronouns
tu
and
vous
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Speech levels of Southeast Asian languages that depend on the relative status of the speaker and addressee
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Distinctions between lexical choices made in the presence of certain kin in Dyirbal
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Generic
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Relational social deixis is a kind of
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What is a relative adverb?
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Definition
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A relative adverb is a pro-adverb that marks a
relative clause
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A relative adverb is a kind of
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What is a relative clause?
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Definition
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A relative clause is a
clause
which describes the
referent
of a
head
noun
or
pronoun
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It often restricts the reference of the head noun or pronoun.
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Discussion
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A relative clause is not necessarily a
constituent
of the noun phrase containing the head noun it modifies.
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Example
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The plumber arrived
who we had called earlier.
(Who we had called earlier
has been extraposed from its normal position after
plumber
and is not a member of the noun phrase containing
plumber.)
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Examples (English)
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The man
who went
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Passengers
leaving on Flight 738
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of relative clauses:
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Generic
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A relative clause is a kind of
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What is relative future tense?
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Definition
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Relative future tense is a relative tense that refers to a time located after a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter’s relation to the moment of
utterance
.
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Example (English)
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The time of departure is, in each case, in the future relative to a temporal reference point. In these cases, the temporal point is likely that of the action expressed by the main verb phrase.
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Generic
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Relative future tense is a kind of
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What is relative nonfuture tense?
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Definition
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Relative nonfuture tense is a relative tense that refers to a time simultaneous to, or before, a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of
utterance
.
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Examples (English)
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Those persons [that
are
] successful in completing the course will receive a certificate.
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The people
entering
the stadium received a program.
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Generic
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Relative nonfuture tense is a kind of
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What is relative nonpast tense?
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Definition
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Relative nonpast tense is a relative tense that refers to a time simultaneous to, or after, a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of
utterance
.
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Generic
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Relative nonpast tense is a kind of
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What is relative past tense?
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Definition
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Relative past tense is a relative tense that refers to a time located before that of a contextually determined temporal reference point.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Relative past tense is a kind of
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What is relative present tense?
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Definition
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Relative present tense is a relative tense that refers to a time that is simultaneous with some contextually determined temporal reference point.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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Relative present tense is a kind of
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What is a relative pronoun?
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Definition
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A relative pronoun is a pronoun that
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marks a
relative clause
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functions grammatically within the relative clause, and
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is
coreferential
to the word modified by the relative clause.
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Example (English)
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Definition
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Relative tense is a tense that refers to a time in relation to a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter’s temporal relation to the moment of
utterance
.
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Example (English)
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of relative tense:
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Generic
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Relative tense is a kind of
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Definition
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A relativizer is a subordinating conjunction that links a
relative clause
to its
head
noun
.
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It is distinguishable from a
relative pronoun
in that it does not have a nominal function within the relative clause.
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Example (Hausa)
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na ga mutumin da ya yi aikin
I_PERF see the_man RELATIVIZER he_PERF do the_work
‘I saw the man who did the work.’
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Despite the English translation ‘who’,
da
is not the subject within the relative clause and is not a pronoun.
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Generic
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A relativizer is a kind of
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Definition
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A relator is a lexical item whose function is to show the relationship between its surrounding constructions.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of relators:
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What is a relevance implicature?
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Definition
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A relevance implicature is a conversational implicature based on an
addressee
's assumption as to whether a speaker is observing or flouting the
conversational maxim of relation or relevance
.
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If the
speaker
is assumed to be observing the maxim, then the addressee makes a
standard implicature
. If the speaker is assumed to be flouting the maxim, then the addressee makes a more nonstandard type of implicature.
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Examples (English)
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Generic
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A relevance implicature is a kind of
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What is remote future tense?
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Definition
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Remote future is a future tense that refers to a time that is considered relatively distant. It is characteristically after the span of time culturally defined as "tomorrow."
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Generic
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Remote future tense is a kind of
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What is remote past tense?
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Definition
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Remote past tense is a past tense that refers to a time considered more than a few days ago.
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Generic
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Remote past tense is a kind of
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Definition
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A repair is an alteration that is suggested or made by a
speaker
, the
addressee
, or
audience
in order to correct or clarify a previous conversational contribution.
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It may occur at any of several points following the contribution in question, perhaps occurring in accordance with a conventional order of preference.
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Kinds
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Here are some kinds of repairs:
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What is a repartee discourse?
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Definition
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Repartee discourse is a discourse that is used to recount a series of speech exchanges.
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Generic
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A repartee discourse is a kind of
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What is a restatement relation?
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Definition
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A restatement relation is an interpropositional relation in which a
proposition(s)
substantially paraphrases another proposition(s).
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A restatement relation is a kind of
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What is a restraint removal schema?
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Definition
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A restraint removal schema is a force schema that involves the physical or metaphorical
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removal of a barrier to the action of a force, or
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absence of a barrier that was potentially present.
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Generic
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A restraint removal schema is a kind of
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What is a restrictive relative clause?
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Definition
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A restrictive relative clause is a relative clause that helps to identify the
referent
of the word that it modifies.
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Discussion
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In some languages, a restrictive relative clause is formally marked.
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Example (English)
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Generic
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A restrictive relative clause is a kind of
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Definition
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A result is a
semantic role
that refers to that which is produced by an event.
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This role is usually encoded as the surface
object
of a
sentence
.
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Discussion
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The term
result
is similar in meaning to the term
range
as used by Longacre and others.
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Example (English)
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Here is an example of result as a semantic role:
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Generic
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A result is a kind of
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Definition
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A reverential form is an expression of
social deixis
that encodes very high status.
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Example (Latin)
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Here is an example of a reverential form:
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Generic
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A reverential form is a kind of
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What is a rhetorical question?
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Definition
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A rhetorical question is an illocutionary act that
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Generic
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A rhetorical question is a kind of
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What is a rhotacized vowel?
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Definition
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A rhotacized vowel is a vowel colored with the sound of an
r.
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Definition
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A rime is the part of a syllable which consists of its vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it.
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Examples
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Here are some examples of syllables divided into
onsets
and rimes:
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Word
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Onset
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Rime
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I
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I
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it
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it
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sit
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s
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it
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spit
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sp
|
it
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split
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spl
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it
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spoil
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sp
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oil
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pie
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p
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ie
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Definition
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A root is the portion of a word that
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is common to a set of
derived
or
inflected
forms, if any, when all
affixes
are removed
-
is not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple, and
-
carries the principle portion of meaning of the words in which it functions.
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Discussion
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If a root does not occur by itself in a meaningful way in a language, it is referred to as a
bound morpheme
.
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Examples (English)
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Dis
establish
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Establish
ment
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Establish
ments
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Generic
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A root is a kind of
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